Indeed, throughout modern history, Scots have contributed significantly to all areas of human development, not least in medicine. Scottish medical pioneers include William Leishman, who perfected the typhoid vaccine; William Smellie, the founder of modern obstetrics; John Hunter, the father of comparative anatomy; John Macleod, the discoverer of insulin; Joseph Lister, the founder of antiseptic medicine; James Young Simpson, who was the first to use chloroform in surgery; and Alexander Fleming, who discovered penicillin.